Energy Efficient Housing Construction: Foundation

INTRODUCTION

This section is designed as a guide to understanding, energy efficient house construction. The Canadian 'House as a System' planning approach was used. This approach ensures that all of the components which make up the home function well together.

Energy efficient housing is not any particular housing style or type, almost any housing can be built using energy efficient construction techniques. Improvements in design and construction which lower energy use are permanent and are one-time-only costs which increase the value of your home, while lowering the ongoing operating costs.

Energy efficient housing in simple terms is 'housing which uses the energy put into it as efficiently as possible'. It is not difficult to plan and build energy efficient housing. Using existing techniques and materials, total home energy usage can be reduced by 60% to 80%.

The extra costs for upgraded materials, construction, insulation and airtightness required for energy efficient housing should only add 5% to 10% to the total building cost. With potential savings of 60% to 80% on energy costs, the simple payback period may only be 5 to 8 years at current energy costs. Simple payback is calculated by dividing the increased building cost by the yearly energy cost savings.

Faced with today's ever increasing cost of energy, and concern over what future energy costs will be, building energy efficient housing makes more economic sense now than ever. Energy efficient housing uses less energy and therefore produces less pollutants, this is one area where each of us can help preserve the environment for future generations.

Energy Efficient Construction

The basic shell construction assemblies of a home - foundation, walls, floors and roofs - are covered in detail in this section. Standard house building practices are illustrated with the emphasis on high insulation levels and a continuous air/vapour barrier installation. Details include how the floor, wall and ceiling assemblies join (and the sealing problems created) and how airtightness and insulation levels are maintained in spite of obstructions such as windows, doors, wiring, plumbing, pipes, or chimneys. The object is not to cover all aspects of structural building design - only how energy efficient construction can be incorporated into existing residential construction practices.For reference, Table 2 lists metric building material sizes along with Imperial equivalents.

Controlling Heat Loss

Most important to the success of an energy efficient home is the quality of construction. Even poorly sited homes (as often occurs in urban areas), with little passive solar gain potential, can be very energy efficient homes. Adequate levels of insulation and careful sealing can combine to cut heat losses so that the energy required for space heating will only be 15% to 25% of a 'normally' constructed home.

A good way to think about a house is to consider it a 'shell' which must keep heat inside during the winter. This shell is made up of floors, ceilings and walls constructed with various building materials. Heat is lost from the inside of your home in two ways: either directly through the shell or when warm indoor air leaks out through cracks and holes (replaced by cold outside air leaking in).

Energy loss through the building shell can be 40% to 70% of the total and is controlled with insulation. Air leakage losses account for the remainder and is controlled by the air/vapour barrier, weatherstripping and caulking.

Insulation

Insulation is measured by its R-value (or RSI-value). The higher the R-value, the better the insulation stops heat flow. R-values for different building materials are given in Table 1. The total R-value for a wall, ceiling or floor is the sum of the values of each part or layer.

For an Energy Efficient House in a cold climate (5000 heating degree days or less), the recommended R-values (RSI-values) are:

• R-10 (RSI 1.7) under foundation floor.
  
• R-30 (RSI 5.0) for above grade floors such as overhangs, cantilevers and below projecting windows.
  
• R-20 (RSI 3.5) for all walls above and below grade.
  
• R-40 (RSI 7.0) for all ceilings whether sloped or flat.
  
  

For a Super Energy Efficient House in a cold climate or if building in a very cold climate (5700 heating degree days or more), the recommended R-values (RSI-values) are:

• R-30 (RSI 5.3) for all foundation walls.
  
• R--36 (RSI 6.3) for all walls above grade.
  
• R-40 (RSI 7.0) for above grade floors such as overhangs, cantilevers and below projecting windows.
  
• R-60 (RSI 10.5) for all ceilings whether sloped or flat.
  
  

Most insulation products can be placed in one of three types - blanket, loose fill or rigid.

Blanket Insulation (often called 'batt') is the easiest to handle and being premanufactured, has a consistent quality. It is most suitable for application to vertical cavities (as in walls). There are two common kinds, glass fibre and mineral fibre, both with an R-value of about R-3.5 per inch (RSI-value 0.024 per millimetre)

Loose Fill Insulations are made from a variety of products and all work well for horizontal surfaces such as ceilings where the depth is not a problem. They can also be used in regular or irregular joist and wall cavities. It is essential that loose fill materials made of wood or paper products be treated for fire resistance. R-values range from R 2.5 to 3.5 per inch (RSI-values 0.016 to 0.024 per millimetre of thickness).

Rigid Insulations are made of a number of products such as polystyrene, fibreglass, urethane or isocyanurate. They are the most expensive types but do offer the highest R-values up to R-7.5 per inch (RSI-values to 0.051 per millimetre). Rigid insulations are a fire hazard when exposed to the interior but are considered safe when installed properly. In particular, they can be used on the interior of a home if covered by at least 1/2 inch (12 mm) of drywall or plaster which is mechanically fastened to the structure. Rigid insulations can be used on the outside of concrete, masonry or wood walls and under siding or stucco finishes. Some high density types are suitable for use under concrete floor slabs.

Spray-Foamed Insulations are mixed on the job site by the contractor/ installer. A liquid type foam is sprayed directly into wall cavities. The foam expands in place and sets in a short time span. Installation should only be handled by qualified installers. R-values range from R-3.5 to 6.0 per inch (RSI-values 0.024 to 0.042 per millimeter of thickness).

Sprayed-in-Place Insulations are loose fill products which are blown in to wall cavities. A mesh or plastic film is attached to the walls, the insulation is then mixed with an adhesive, usually water-based and then blown into the wall cavities. The three most common types of insulation installed in this way are cellulose, glass fibre blowing wool and mineral or rockwool. R-values range from R-3 to R 3.5 per inch (RSI-values 0.024 to 0.032 per millimetre of thickness).

The proper choice of insulation type depends on its use. In addition to high thermal resistance, a good insulation should have low absorption of water, resistance to fire, bacteria and vermin, reasonable cost, and be easily applied.

Air Leakage

The air/vapour barrier plays the most important role in controlling air leakage heat losses and, in conjunction with caulking and weatherstripping, creates the seal between inside and outside. Exterior air barriers (taped) are recommended under any exterior siding or finish materials which are subject to air penetration

Caulking is used to seal any gaps where two surfaces meet but have limited or no movement. Most types of caulking will 'skin over' so they can be painted or are not sticky to touch when hardened.

• Oil or resin based caulks are inexpensive, but are not very durable (less than 5 years).
  
• Latex based materials are reasonably priced and durable, as well as being applicable to a number of different situations.
  
• Butyl rubber compounds are expensive but work the best for sealing wood to concrete surfaces (should only be applied in well ventilated areas).
  
• Elastomeric caulks (silicone and polysulphide) are very expensive but also very durable.
  
• Acoustical sealant, does not harden or form a skin and is used for sealing joins in the air/vapour barrier.
  
• Polyurethane foam is a special type of material useful for sealing large gaps around rough openings or along sill plates.
  
  

Weatherstripping is used to control air leakage at joints where two surfaces meet and move such as opening windows and doors. Weatherstripping is available in compression types, wedging types and magnet types. Good quality windows and door units are supplied with quality weatherstripping materials and are tested for air leakage rates. One should select units which have been tested and shown to have air leakage rates of less than 1/2 cfm per foot of sash length (0.80 litres per second per metre).

Polyethylene sheets are used for the air/vapour barrier. It is essential, in an energy efficient house, that the air/vapour barrier be continuous and all joints between sheets be sealed over solid backing. A non-skinning caulking such as acoustical sealant is used to seal between joints in the polyethylene. Because polyethylene is often handled roughly when being installed, 6 mil thick (0.150mm) sheets should be used. In addition to being more fragile, thinner polyethylene is much more permeable to air/vapour transmission than the thicker 0.150mm (6 mil) sheets.

The air/vapour barrier has another role to play in house construction. In addition to controlling air leakage, it prevents water vapour movement into the walls, ceilings or floors.

If vapour from the interior is allowed to enter an insulated assembly during cold weather, it could condense and form ice at some point in the wall. When the ice melts, deterioration of the insulation and structural components will occur over time. There is also a potential for supporting mold growth within the wall assembly which can cause indoor air quality problems. For this reason, the air/vapour layer must be located near the warm (or interior) side of ceilings, walls and floors.

Research has shown that as long as the air/vapour barrier is placed within the first one-third of the total assembly R-value (measured from the warm side), then no condensation problems will occur.

Foundations

Every building must have an adequate foundation to support it. In cold climates, foundations usually form an enclosure under a building - a crawl space or basement - although some (slab-on-grade) are built right on the ground. Controlling the heat loss through the foundation is very important. Contrary to popular belief, earth is not a good insulator and one-third of the total heat loss in a home can occur through an uninsulated basement.

Masonry or Concrete Foundation Walls

Cast-in-place concrete or block-type walls are the most commonly used in Canada. Insulating this type of foundation is best done on the outside if possible. The large amount of thermal mass in a masonry or concrete foundation is included in the interior volume of the house if it is insulated on the outside. As well, the foundation is less susceptible to frost damage and leaking. Rigid insulation or glass fibre sheets can be used. The above grade portion must be protected with stucco, treated plywood or similar rigid exterior finishes. Since masonry or concrete walls are quite porous, a polyethylene air/vapour barrier is added on the interior to eliminate any potential condensation problems with the completed interior walls. The exterior foundation insulation details shows the application of rigid insulation.

Most masonry foundations however, have been, and will continue to be insulated on the inside. A most important step is placing a moisture barrier of polyethylene on the inside of the wall from the exterior grade level to the floor. The wall interior is then insulated and sealed similar to frame wall construction. It is also possible to use rigid insulation, attach an air/vapour barrier, then finish the wall directly over it. The interior finish is difficult to attach through the rigid insulation - which must be 4 to 6 inches thick (100mm to 150mm) in order to have an R-20 value (RSI 3.5). If plastic rigid insulation is used, drywall which is mechanically fastened to the foundation wall must cover it. A 2 x 4 inch (38 x 89 mm) stud wall frame work spaced 1.5 inches (36mm) out from the foundation wall, as illustrated, can be insulated with R-20 (RSI 3.5) batt-type insulation products.

This provides the easiest and most economical route if a foundation wall must be insulated on the inside. The interior foundation insulation detail shows how this is best done to provide a well-sealed and insulated wall.

There are currently a number of products available from manufacturers which offer rigid interior foundation insulation systems. These systems each have their own methods for attaching both the insulation and the interior finish and offer an effective alternative to wood framing and batt insulation.

Pressure Treated Wood Foundation Walls

Wood foundations can easily be made very energy efficient. Often called a 'PWF' foundation they can be constructed in almost any type of weather. A wood foundation must, however, be designed by a qualified engineer and constructed by competent builders who understand the importance of proper base preparation, handling techniques for pressure treated materials, the use of correct fasteners, drainage installation, backfilling techniques and sealing requirements. Because the foundation walls are an extension of typical wood frame construction, installing batt insulation and applying the air/vapour barrier is quite straight forward.

PWF Foundation Floors

The floor in a pressure treated wood foundation can be a concrete floor slab. Rigid Insulation should be placed under the foundation floor to a minimum insulation level of R-10 (RSI 1.7). A moisture barrier of at least 6 mil polyethylene (overlap seams) is required. A 3 to 4 inch (75 to 100 mm) layer of sand placed on top of the rigid insulation and the air/vapour barrier protects both during the floor pour and aids in proper concrete curing. Extra insulation to protect footings may be required for shallow footing depths as is often the case in bilevel or crawlspace foundations.

The floor in a pressure treated wood foundation can also be constructed of pressure treated wood. Pressure treated wood foundation floors are constructed using standard floor framing techniques on a gravel drainage bed. The installation of an effective moisture barrier on top of the gravel drainage layer is very important (minimum 6 mil polyethylene sheeting with overlapped and sealed seams).The floor joist cavities can then be filled with standard batt, blown or loose fill insulations. An air/vapour barrier is then installed on top of the floor joists. The attachment of the floor and wall polyethylene sheets is another important step in creating continuity of the air/vapour barrier. Standard floor sheathing and finishes can then be applied.

Polystyrene Foundation Walls

There are two basic techniques used to construct foundation walls using rigid polystyrene insulation. Some systems offer either polystyrene blocks or panels which use concrete and steel reinforcing placed into the cavities for structural support.

Other systems offer solid polystyrene panels using metal or wood studs for structural requirements. In either case, an interior polyethylene air/vapour barrier is applied and covered with a fireproof layer of drywall or plaster which must be mechanically fastened to the structural part of the wall. The outside must also be covered with a rigid material or parging to protect the polystyrene from mechanical damage and degradation from sunlight and soils.

Crawl Space Construction

Many homes have been built with partial depth foundations which are often called crawl spaces. Because the crawl space area under a home usually contains some mechanical services, insulating the foundation walls and floor is recommended to keep the temperature above freezing. A crawl space floor should be treated the same as an exterior wall, insulated and sealed from the house interior space. The crawl space walls can be insulated from the interior or exterior using standard foundation insulation methods. Perimeter insulation is then added as well to ensure that the crawl space retains more heat and is able to resist frost penetration. A moisture barrier, placed over the ground surface, is necessary to keep the space dry.

As well, summer ventilation should be provided by having outside air vents into the crawl space which can be opened in spring and closed in the fall. Any accumulated moisture can then be vented out during the summer months.

Slab-On-Grade Construction

With this type of foundation the concrete slab is the combined foundation and finished floor surface. Rigid polystyrene insulation is used below the slab to lower floor heat loss. Perimeter insulation is also applied to control heat loss from the edge of the floor slab. An insulated skirt of rigid insulation extending down and away from the foundation wall around the entire perimeter will eliminate any potential frost problems, improve drainage and help further reduce heat loss.

The polyethylene air/vapour barrier can be applied on top of the insulation, directly below the slab. A 3 to 4 inch (75 to 100 mm) layer of sand on top of the rigid insulation and the air/vapour barrier will protect both during the floor pour and aid in proper concrete curing. In order to provide continuity with the wall air/vapour barrier, the floor polyethylene layer must be placed so it can conveniently join to the wall layer at some point during construction.

To better anchor a slab-on-grade foundation, it can be attached to concrete piles. Large diameter holes of 8 to 12 inches (200mm to 300mm) are drilled 10 to 12 feet deep (3m to 4m) at intervals around the edge of the foundation. Reinforcing bars tie the thickened slab edge to the piles. In soils where drainage and frost is a problem, additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement.

Site, Solar & House Planning (Part 2)

Room Layout and Traffic Flow

Traffic flow and stair location are integral parts of successful home layouts. The previous section on interior planning showed that stairs should be located centrally to the plans so that circulation to all spaces is direct and convenient. Traffic flow through the home should be as easy and simple as possible. Centrally located entries, as well as stairs, help in simplifying traffic flow in the home.

Traffic flow in individual rooms should also reflect this simplicity. Locate frequently used items convenient to the user - for example, closets and dressers in bedrooms should be close to the door, not on the other side of obstacles like beds.

Consider how each room can be designed for ease of use, especially those work areas like kitchens and utility rooms. In the kitchen, the sink, range and refrigerator form the corners of the kitchen triangle and the total perimeter length should fall between 15ft and 22ft (4.5m and 6.7m). Millimetres and metres are the common SI system dimensions used for length measurements on plans.

Scale drawings and furniture should be used to analyze how each room works in your home. Make sure that the plan and rooms relate well throughout. In the enthusiasm of creating an energy-efficient home, don't overlook the functionality of the plan in terms of a family living space. A wide variety of good software programs are available which can help you develop your floor plans.

Many energy efficient home plans have horizontal and vertical openings between living spaces so that passively heated air is free to move about the space. In these types of plans, individual room design may be overshadowed by the impact of the entire space. This is important when considering traffic patterns and furniture placement and how the space appears visually from one area to another. Closed plans on the other hand, are subdivided into individual spaces. In these layouts, the rooms are separate. Less importance is given to the overall interior and visual impact.

Most homes are a combination of closed and open plans. Living, working and activity spaces usually have a degree of openness between them. The kitchen and eating may be combined, hobby and family areas joined, sun spaces and living areas can be linked, or dining and recreation spaces may occur together. Private spaces, such as bedrooms and bathrooms, constitute a closed part to every plan.

Designing for a Handicapped Occupant

Special consideration should be given to handicapped occupants of your home during the planning stages. The degree of handicap will of course govern how a plan and construction must be modified. Special hardware and doors, heights of countertops, levels of illumination and the elimination of stairs may be factors requiring consideration.

The most significant changes in planning occur when accommodating occupants requiring wheelchairs. The graphic illustrates some of the design criteria involved in making sure adequate manouvering room is left in the home.

On-grade entries can eliminate the need for exterior ramps and will provide much safer winter access. Hallways should be at least 36 inches (900mm) wide with clear access provided to doorways - small jogs or angles should be avoided. Any house plan can be easily changed in order to accommodate a person confined to a wheelchair.

Initial Planning Steps - A Summary

The key to a successful home design lies in the accommodation of the occupant's needs, wishes, tastes and lifestyles. In a home planning exercise, the following steps have to be considered.

• Develop a list of spaces and their approximate required sizes.
  
  
  
  
• Check that all group and individual needs are met (remembering that small children, elderly or handicapped occupants may have special needs).
  
  
  
  
• Combine spaces and functions into 'multi-purpose' rooms or areas to conserve excess building area. Scale furniture should be utilized to determine if areas have enough room for circulation and your furniture pieces.
  
  
  
  
• Establish the building shape you require - bungalow, bilevel, One and a half Storey, Two Storey, etc. A rectangular volume, oriented along an east-west axis, is most practical in a cold climate.
  
  
  
  
• Using the selected building shape, arrange the interior spaces for ease of circulation, access to stairs and entries, proper zoning of working, living and sleeping areas, and interior/exterior relationships (to views, outdoor recreation areas, entries, etc).
  
  
  
  
• Make sure openings (such as doors and windows) are properly located with respect to views, circulation (both interior and exterior), natural light and ventilation, and for passive solar access.
  
  
  
  

Quite often, little thought is given to areas like entries, bathrooms and hobby areas or concepts in window design with regard to function, interior-exterior relationships, or the potential for passive solar heat. Time spent during the initial planning stages can result in an energy efficient home truly tailored to your own family which will provide lasting economy, comfort and satisfaction.

Exterior Design

Exterior Styles

Exterior design should express the inner plan and lifestyle of the inhabitants. Unpretentious, informal and contemporary design frequently illustrates this concept better than earlier architectural styles. Many traditional styles were designed with massive stone or timber walls for structural reasons and to protect the family from the outdoors. Contemporary design tends to emphasize a lighter scale and interior-exterior relationship of spaces. Window and door openings unify interior and exterior activities, views and finishing materials.

Selecting a house design that fits your style of living and budget, meets your taste and is energy efficient, is difficult. But an energy efficient home operates because of proper design, orientation, construction and operation - the exterior 'cosmetics' applied afterward will not greatly affect energy use. It is personally satisfying, however, to live in a home that is pleasing in appearance.

As illustrated, convential homes can be transformed to different styles by using exterior finishing materials. Among popular North American houses seen today:

• Colonial styles are characterized by formal, balanced design, a narrow siding or brick, shutters, small window panes, a columned entry and dormer windows.
  
  
• Tudor styles show sharp gables, stucco and half-timber construction, bay windows, diagonal mullions and recessed doorways.
  
  
• Spanish homes show low pitched roofs, white stucco walls, wide overhangs, curved archways, wrought iron details and darkly stained woodwork.
  
  
• Modern style homes have developed out of an informal lifestyle. General characteristics include careful structure-site integration, open floor plan, shed roofs, larger glass areas, geometric forms and an honest display of finishing materials.
  
  
• Contemporary housing has developed recently and is most often characterized by the ranch styles used with bungalow homes. The long, low roof with wide overhangs is a dominant feature - but the rambling development is not in keeping with the compact, energy-saving styles required in a low energy home.
  
  

The openings (doors and windows) and exterior finishing materials used on a home can be varied in style and applications to create different home characters. Notice in the illustration how combinations and variations of horizontal, vertical, angular and curvilinear lines can be used to emphasize height, width, depth, volume or mass. Windows especially contribute to pleasing exterior appearances. Uniformity in selection and placement are important in design although unique shapes or sizes, used discreetly, can lend an individualistic appearance to a home.

Roof Design

The roof is one of the strongest architectural elements of a home. A badly proportioned roof is very distracting. The shape of the roof does more to establish the character of the house than any other single feature. Trying alternate roof lines on a home can be an interesting exercise.

Adapting a Plan to Your Family

Existing Plan

It is difficult to find a home plan that is exactly what you have been looking for. That is because most houses have not been designed specifically for you, your family or your site. On the other hand, many people seem to be able to find a plan that is close to what they want, and any plan can easily be altered. One that you see in a newspaper, a building brochure or at a show home site may appeal to you in general. With a room change here or there, it may be the answer to your housing dreams.

For convenience in planning, you may want to draw your floor plan on paper at a scale of 1:50 - which means that every millimetre on paper equals 50mm in actual size or a scale of 1/4 inch equals one foot. If you use this scale when drawing, it will be easy to use scale furniture for planning and a draftsperson will readily be able to follow your ideas. It also saves time to have 'onionskin-type' tracing paper on hand so that you can trace proposed changes or alterations on it in pencil right over top of your original floor plans.

Making one or two changes to an existing plan is an easy modification. Simple internal changes could include removing or altering closets and storage areas, changing bathroom layouts, revising kitchen/eating arrangements, or altering entry locations. If this plan were used on a farm or acreage, the family may want to revise it as shown so that a better 'mud room' and air lock is provided at the most frequently used entry (through the garage).

Changing an Existing Plan

A more major interior modification could be made to change the entire character of a plan. Major internal modifications might include changing one or two bedrooms into work and hobby areas or increasing storage space. This floor plan shows a revised kitchen/livingroom area to make it a more open-type plan. Instead of isolating the living area from the kitchen/eating space, all three functions can occur together - just the 'closed-to open' plan alteration that may suit an active family.

Altering the exterior appearance also falls under this category. If you have a floor plan you like, coupled with an exterior design you don't, just remember that appearance is usually only skin deep. Relocating windows or doors, differing exterior finishes or differing roof lines can drastically change the exterior look. The exterior design section showed how the same basic plan could be used to create a number of 'different looks'.

Expanding an Existing Plan

Few new home plans are conceived with the idea that one day the home might easily be expanded to meet additional needs. However, an expandable house may be the answer for a young couple with no children and limited finances. By initially planning for a home that can easily be added to at a later date, you can have a home in the end which meets the basic requirements for function, economy and individuality. Illustrated is a simple, expandable house plan. Two bedrooms are added as the family and their financial capabilities grow.

Another approach to planning for expansion shows how the desired plan is only partially built initially. The rooms adopt their final use when the plan is completed - in this case, when the garage and entry section is added.

It is difficult to build in the capability of adding to a basement- type foundation. Because of this limitation, additions are often constructed on crawlspace or slab type foundations. However, when completing your initial planning be sure to allow for future planned development. This includes water, sewer, electrical and heating needs so that the services are properly sized for any additions and can easily be connected in the future.

Adapting a Plan to Fit Your Site

Most energy efficient home designs show ideal elevations and site slopes. However, your site may be flat or have a north facing slope as opposed to the ideal south-facing situation. The basic rules of minimizing east, west and north windows still apply but the amount of south-facing glazing may have to be reduced for a home built on a north-facing slope. Site protection and unobstructed winter sun requirements still apply.

Different slope situations can also affect entries. A bilevel entry change shown is a possible solution to building this home on a flat site.

Proper orientation for views and solar gain may be another concern in siting. This plan is shown drawn again in a mirror image. Note how the space orientation changes. If you have selected a floor plan and suspect a reverse image would improve the layout on your site, hold the plan up to a mirror and evaluate the effect.

The reversed image of this plan shows how each room orientation is changed.

Adapting a plan for your site will most probably involve a combination of changes. This plan shows an example of adapting a plan for family considering this home for a rural site, with access from the south-west, and wanting an attached garage with mudroom. The revised plan could be as shown. A larger laundry/mudroom entry provides the link to the garage, with an airlock foyer and more coat storage space provided in the house itself (the plan was reversed to allow a view from the kitchen to the yard). In this case, the garage provides a good buffer against winter winds and the bedroom windows are oriented east of south for excellent morning light and passive gain.

Adapting a plan to your particular needs and site can vary from a simple position change to complex interior alterations and additions. Any plan you see on paper is just that - and changes are easy at that point. Even plans for premanufactured alternatives such as modular, sectional or package homes can be altered to a large degree. Partitions can be moved, doors and windows altered or finishes changed. If you visit a show home that appeals to you, find out where drawings are available. For a small fee, they too can readily be altered so that the resulting home will fit you and your family both now and in the future.

Site, Solar & House Planning (Part 1)

Introduction

There are three design considerations which need to be given extra attention during the planning stage of building an energy efficient home or if planning a major energy efficient renovation of an existing home.

The housing site and prevailing winds or lack of, need to be considered. Natural ventilation, harsh winter winds or natural protection (trees, berms, buildings) can all effect long term comfort and home energy performance. Solar access combined with the house shape and placement on the building site also has a great effect on overall performance and comfort. The floor plan and interior layout in relation to your particular current and future family's wants and needs, is an equally important design consideration.

This section details these important design considerations as a part of the 'house as a system' planning approach. Although energy efficient housing can be built with any style or type of housing, on any site or compass direction - winds, natural protection and solar energy are free and produce no pollutants. Changes made at the planning stage regarding these design considerations have very little cost but can produce significant lifetime improvements in home energy usage, comfort and usability.

Initial Planning

Site Planning

An ideal site for designing and building an energy efficient home, would have full solar access and protection from the harsh elements of nature. These type of building sites however, are often found only in acreage or rural settings. Unfortunately most urban building sites and housing developments are laid out for ease of development and access, looks and location, or convenience to main service roads.

Fortunately, energy efficient housing works on any site or lot, with any style or type of housing, on any compass orientation. Although your lot may not have any solar access you can still build an energy efficient home.

When planning your building site you must know the prevailing winds in your area to take advantage of them. Shelter from the winter winds and cross ventilation from the summer winds can be incorporated into the planning stage. Housing on urban lots must consider the effects on wind flows and daylight, that the adjoining lot development and house placement will have. Information regarding wind direction and speed is available from most local weather offices.

If the immediate environment around the home is well protected, entries will be more comfortable to use, outdoor play spaces will be usable on sunny winter days and outdoor eating areas will remain pleasant from spring until fall. As the illustrations show, vegetation and soil berms can be used to control winds around a site.

Site Planning

An energy efficient home is not necessarily a solar home, but solar energy can, and often is used, to further lower energy consumption. This applies only if the site conditions allow good solar access (a southern exposure). In a cold climate, solar energy has the potential to supply 20 to 60 per cent or more of the heating requirement of a home.

To maximize solar potential the home must be the proper shape and have unobstructed solar access. The optimum building shape is one which gains the maximum solar energy in the winter yet has the least exposed exterior surface area. The sphere has the least surface area in terms of volume enclosed and is the most efficient, but is not a very practical building shape. A square offers a more practical building shape, but southern surface area can be limited. The rectangular shape offers the best compromise for solar gain since it exposes a larger area to the sun while keeping the total surface area to a practical minimum.

An elongated rectangular shape along an east-west axis exposes the longer south side to maximum heat gain in the winter.

Research has shown that a long side to short side ration of 1.5 to 1.0 is optimum in a cold climate. The low winter sun shines almost directly on the vertical south side. Windows will then intercept the maximum amount of solar radiation available during the winter months.

Solar Planning

Solar Access

No obstacles should be in the way of the low angle rays of winter sun. This solar access must be clear from about 9.00 a.m to 3.00 p.m when over 90% of the winter solar radiation occurs. If the sun is blocked for even one hour, up to 20% of this energy will not be available. Remember, some deciduous trees, even without their leaves, can block up to 50% of the sun.

The Long side can face as much as 30 degrees east or west of true south and still receive over 90% of the available solar energy. This means quite a degree of flexibility when siting the home. Orienting most south-facing windows to the east of true south means early warming of rooms in the winter. Orienting the windows more to the west of true south allows more afternoon warming although this will require additional shading during the summer months to avoid possible overheating.

Summer Shading

During the summer, the south side receives less solar radiation than the roof because the sun is higher above the horizon. Overhangs can be designed to block the sun and control overheating by shading windows in the summer.

The length of overhang required is calculated by dividing the distance from the underside of the overhang to the sill of the window by 1.7. This length of overhang would then shade the window from late May to early August for most central Canadian climate latitudes. When the sun is lower in the sky the window becomes less shaded so all available solar energy enters during the heaviest heating season - November to March. West facing windows are subject to overheating all year long because the setting sun is low no matter what the season and will require extra shading or Low-E window units.

Check with your local weather office or service for winter sun angles for your area.

Passive Solar

Passive solar energy systems require no energy to operate and are an intrinsic part of the home design. Passive systems add little additional cost, operate with almost no supervision and require little or no maintenance. The basic elements of all passive systems are south-facing windows and internal thermal mass. Solar heating is simply sunlight entering the house that is absorbed and converted into heat energy which is later released inside the house as it cools. Any house with south facing windows can be a solar home.

An energy efficient passive solar home works through proper design which makes good use of the sun's energy for heating and lighting. while providing the opportunity for sunny rooms, attached sunrooms and solariums. With reasonable solar access, almost any plan or style of house can incorporate passive solar features. An energy efficient home is not necessarily a solar home, but solar energy is very effective at lowering energy consumption and associated costs.

Attached sunspaces and solariums have become more popular as a way to lengthen our growing season and enjoy a little more time in the sun. With a great variety of styles available, sunspaces fall into two broad categories of freestanding and lean-to types. Solariums are usually incorporated into the internal dimensions of a home.

Sunspaces and solariums work by admitting solar heat (sunlight) which is absorbed by the materials inside it - concrete or tile floors, masonry walls in sunspaces attached to homes, storage containers of water, wooden plant benches full of dirt - the greater the mass, the more heat the space will be able to absorb.

Direct Gain

The simplest passive solar heating design is the 'Direct Gain' approach. This means that the space within the house or sunroom is heated by direct sunlight. If the space is used as a solar collector, then it must also contain a method of absorbing and storing enough daytime heat to be useful at night. The house itself becomes a sort of live-in solar collector with heat storage and distribution built right in. Direct gain systems work continually collecting solar energy from either direct sunlight or diffused light through clouds or haze.

With the direct gain approach, south facing glass is exposed to the maximum amount of solar energy in winter and the minimum amount of solar gain in summer. Since a portion of this heat can be captured and stored for use at night, the walls and/or floors need to be constructed of materials capable of storing additional heat.

This interior heat storage helps prevent large fluctuations of indoor temperatures during the day while storing the extra heat for later use. The most common mass used is composed of masonry materials such as brick, floor tile, masonry, stone or concrete, although water storage can be used as well. Phase change materials which can store tremendous amounts of heat energy are being developed but are currently not widely available and are costly.

Most homes contain enough thermal mass in walls, floors and furniture to absorb the energy coming in through south-glazing sized at a maximum of 8 to 10% of the total floor area.

In northern latitudes, less glass area is often used to reduce excessive winter heat loss. Energy efficient homes which have very low heat losses will also require less south glass area, unless the internal thermal mass is increased to avoid overheating. Problems with direct gain passive solar homes can include glare and sunlight-faded fabrics.

If the window area increases (10 to 15% or more) relative to floor area, then special glazings and additional thermal mass will be required. This mass can be in the form of a concrete floor, heavy floor tiles, masonry planters, masonry or brick feature walls, a stone or concrete fireplace, or some type of water storage container. As a general rule, for each one square foot (1m2) of south-facing glass in a space over the 10% maximum, one needs five square feet (5m²) of masonry four inches thick (100mm) or the equivalent in increased thermal mass (a ratio of 1:5). Because mass absorbs and releases heat slowly, expect wide temperature swings in the order of 10°F (5°C) in direct gain spaces with larger window areas.

Where large window areas are involved, there are two methods for reducing nighttime heat loss, which in cold climates can be very high. The first is the use of current window technology which combines Low-E coated glazings, insulating spacers and insulating gases between panes to provide R values above 5 (RSI-0.87). Specialty Low-E coated glazings and window films can also be used to help control excessive heat gain and ultraviolet. The other is the use of window insulation at night to help reduce heat loss.

Studies in Canada and the northern U.S. have shown that a conservative passive solar approach is more economical in both capital cost and performance. This approach starts by super-insulating and air sealing the building to reduce the heat load as much as possible. A small amount of well insulated, south facing glass allows direct solar heat gain without incurring radical temperature swings within the building. Instead of adding extra tons of rock in or under the structure, existing mass in the form of flooring (tiles) and additional gypsum wallboard and (perhaps some strategically placed masonry), is utilized. This approach adds very little cost as only the windows need to be upgraded. The collection, storage and distribution of heat within a purely passive home is done without mechanical devices using convection and radiation.

Indirect Gain

Indirect Gain is when sunlight strikes a thermal mass which is located between the sun and the space to be heated. The sunlight absorbed by the mass is converted to thermal energy and then transferred into the living space. The most common type of indirect gain system is the thermal storage wall.

Trombe Walls are the most commonly known form of indirect gain. The thermal mass wall should be located 4 inches or more directly behind the glass. These walls are usually made of masonry. Alternatives include water walls, roof ponds or attached greenhouses.

Indirect gain systems can work well with energy efficient homes because of the ability it provides for better control of passive solar heating. In this type of system, the sunlight strikes a thermal mass inside of or in between it and the interior space to be heated. With this system, large areas of glass can be used. The design rule of thumb here is one square foot or metre of south-facing window is required for each square foot or metre of floor area you wish to heat. Insulation of the glass at night is a must to prevent heat loss from the mass to the outside. The mass must be 12 to 18 inches thick (300 to 450 mm ) if masonry or 8 inch thick (200 mm) if water. This type of passive solar collection system works well if there is good solar access and a view you don't mind blocking with mass walls. Thermosiphoning slots at the top and bottom will slightly increase the energy absorbed into the space - but the slots must be blocked at night to prevent the reverse effect (heat being removed from the space).

Solar Spaces

Sunspaces and Solariums

Attached sunspaces or solariums are often combined direct and indirect gain spaces. They are directly heated but can provide an indirect means of heating the house. These types of spaces usually have lots of glass area and can be subject to severe overheating or heat loss, especially when both the roof and walls are glazed. It is important that the spaces are well designed with provisions for spring, summer and fall ventilation to control heat build-up. One drawback with passive solar sunspaces and greenhouses is that summer overheating can be severe when no one is home to operate manual shading or ventilating devices.

A simple attached lean-to style sunspace can be a useful heat gathering space - it can stand large temperature swings and can be closed off and not heated in the middle of winter. If designed properly, a sunspace can be an enjoyable, convenient outdoor insect-free space (with large screened openings in summer). It can be used for bedding plants, and to extend the fall tomato harvest but, unless lots of energy is pumped in over the winter months, It can be more economical to leave the sunspace dormant from November to February.

Most sunspaces however are used year round and often do double duty as small family plant rooms and greenhouses. Sunspaces are most often integrated with the house and heated with the main heating system. A passive solar sunspace can help to reduce the increased heating cost associated with a year round sunspace located in a cold climate.

Passive solar heating is free and produces no pollutants.

To help heat the home, mass storage and some method of transferring the heat to the living space is required. This can be a mass wall between the two areas, water storage containers, forced-air distribution system or a rock storage/air distribution system. Some storage bed systems can lead to complicated damper, fan and thermostatic control functions which is not in keeping with the concept of passive collection.

Greenhouses

A greenhouse is totally different. Plants cannot tolerate large temperature swings, thrive best in high humidity, and require heat in winter and ventilation in summer to survive. The large glass areas need winter insulation and summer shading to create a reasonable atmosphere for growing things. Condensation is often a problem created by the high level of humidity associated with plants. A working, active, attached greenhouse will actually increase the heating costs of your home because it is another room to heat with a high heat loss rate in the winter. Insects can be a problem as well and pesticides should not be used in an airtight structure. A working greenhouse would have to remain isolated to keep pesticide residues out of any attached living space. This would severely limit the greenhouse as an effective passive heat source for the home.

Interior Planning

Plan Layout and Zoning

As pointed out, a rectangular house shape is most efficient in terms of solar energy gain and minimum surface area heat loss. The challenge then becomes one of arranging all the spaces your family needs into that rectangular volume.

First list all the areas you require. These are the basic requirements such as a kitchen, bedrooms and bathrooms. Just as important are the living spaces, special work areas, storage, mechanical rooms, entries, etc. Beside each space you list, note the area required. Totalling the areas and adding 25 to 30% for circulation, storage space and wall thickness will give you approximate total home area. It may be hard to visualize the size of the spaces you need. Measure the rooms you live in now for ideas on size. Utilize scale furniture in planning each room so that nothing is left out of your plan - you should involve planning for future furniture purchases also. To eliminate future space problems, it is important that sound decisions are made with regard to space. The planning stage is the best time to make them.

As noted in initial planning a rectangular shape offers the best compromise of house volume versus exposed exterior surface area. There are many configurations for a solar-oriented home. A bungalow or bi-level with a fully developed lower level, a two-storey home, or a one and one-half storey house will, as illustrated, result in the basic rectangular shape.

The next task is to arrange the spaces required into the desired house shape. Draw each space to approximate scale size as a bubble, rough square or rectangle on a piece of paper. Cut them out and arrange them in different ways to help you visualize a final layout. At this point consider the views from each space, the natural light and ventilation requirements, and the room-to-room relationships.

Analyze each room individually with regard to windows and doors, then how it will relate to other rooms in the plan. Certain rooms, such as living or family rooms, require lots of natural light, can be good passively heated spaces and will be used by all family members - these rooms are termed the living zone. Other rooms, such as the kitchen, utility and bathroom areas, require plumbing, more artificial light, lots of storage facilities and are referred to as the working zone. Quiet, private bedroom areas are called the sleeping zone. An important aspect of successful planning is maintaining separate zones - keeping noisy and quiet areas apart.

Consider solar energy when laying out the rooms for an energy-efficient home. The graphic illustrates a potential bungalow layout which places the working zone (requiring few windows) on the north side, the sleeping zone on the east side (where early morning sun is appreciated) and the living zone on the south side (where the sun can warm the spaces during the day).

If the lower level is to be developed, 'vertical' zoning is also important. The potential bilevel layout plan shows how the three individual zones are kept separate vertically (one above the other) as well as horizontally. Isolating bedroom and living areas above one another keeps quiet areas well separated from the lived-in zones.

In any home plan compromises usually have to be made. Some areas requiring windows may be on the north, bedrooms may face west because there isn't room for all of them on the east, or vertical zoning rules may be broken - as often is the case in a two-storey home.

The three levels shown in the illustration, have been arranged for solar access to all living and sleeping areas. The utility room, bathrooms, entries, and the garage have been placed as a buffer on the north side.

Homeowners Guide to Energy Savings

Most of the electricity consumed in todays homes goes to operate our major appliances and heating systems, with lighting and small appliances consuming the rest. The electric energy used in our homes is often the most expensive form of energy we use. Since you pay for the amount of electricity you use, reducing your energy usage will save you money. Also the less energy we require, the less of an impact commercial electrical generation will have on our environment.

The tables provided in this section show the estimated average monthly energy usage, based on national averages. As consumption of electricity varies from home to home, these averages may not be accurate for everyone, but they do serve as a valuable guide. Each table shows the estimated average monthly usage in kilowatt hours (KWH) and the monthly operating costs based on a $0.05 per KWH charge. You can easily adjust the figures to reflect your costs by checking your utility bill (or contact your local utility) for your per kilowatt hour (KWH) charge and multiplying by the monthly usage figures to arrive at your costs.

Understanding Kilowatt Hours

Electricity is billed to customers for each kilowatt hour (KWH) used.

A kilowatt is 1000 watts.

A kilowatt hour is 1000 watts of electricity delivered to a customer for one hour.

A good example is a 100 watt light bulb, left on for 10 hours: 100 watts x 10 hrs. = 1 KWH.

If you would like to calculate the energy usage of an appliance you can use the following formula:

Wattage divided by 1000 x cost per kwh = cost per hour.

Air Movement and Conditioning

Air Movement and Conditioning	Average Wattage	Single Use Costs	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated Monthly Usage Costs (5¢ per KWH)
Electronic air cleaner*	50	**	24 hours a day	$ 1.80
Air cleaner (portable)	50	**	24 hours a day	1.80
Air conditioner (Refrigeration type) Room Type - Bedroom* - Family room**** Central (3-ton) - Standard* - High efficiency****	900 1500 5960 4008	0.045 0.075 0.298 0.200	180 hours 180 hours 450 hours/season 450 hours/season	8.10 13.50 134.10 90.00
Evaporative (swamp) cooler - 4800 cfm	620	0.031	450 hours per season	13.95
Dehumidifier***	250	0.012	126 hours a month	1.57
Fans - Attic - Circulating - Exhaust-small - Furnace (auto cycle) - Furnace (cont cycle) - Rollabout - Window	375 88 200 500 500 171 200	0.018 ** 0.010 0.025 0.025 ** 0.010	150 hours 150 hours 30 hours 250 hours 720 hours 60 hours 60 hours	2.81 0.66 0.30 6.25 18.00 0.52 0.60
Humidifier***	120	**	60 hours	0.36

* Plus cost of furnace fan. The fan should operate continuously for best results.

** Less than a penny.

*** Humidistatically controlled. The cost is based on the estimated appliance 'on time'.

**** Thermostatically controlled. The cost is based on the estimated appliance 'on time'.

Health and Personal

Health and Personal	Average Wattage	Single Use Cost and Time of Use	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated Monthly Usage Costs (5¢ per KWH)
Heat lamp	250	$0.013 for 1 hr	Five hours	$0.06
Heating Pad*	65	** for 2 hrs	Six hours	0.02
Make-up mirror	25	** for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.01
Electric blanket*	200	** for 1 hr	240 hours	2.40
Vibrator	40	** for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.02
Curling iron	40	** for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.02
Hair clipper	10	** for 1 hr	Two hours	**
Hair dryer - Soft bonnet - Hard bonnet - Hand held	400 1200 1000	0.02 for 1 hr 0.06 for 1 hr 0.05 for 1 hr	Ten hours Ten hours Ten hours	0.20 0.60 0.50
Hair rollers	350	0.017 for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.18
Shaving Cream Dispenser	60	** for 30 sec	Two minutes per day	**
Shaver	14	** for 10 min	Ten minutes per day	**
Toothbrush	7	** for 10 min	Ten minutes per day	**
Vapourizer	480	0.024 for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.24
Germicidal lamp	20	** for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.01
Massager	15	** for 1 hr	Ten hours	**

* Thermostatically controlled. The average cost is based on the estimated appliance 'on time'.

** Less than a penny.

Home Entertainment and Workshop

Home Entertainment and Workshop	Average Wattage	Single Use Costs	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated Monthly Usage Cost (5¢ per KWH)
Television - Colour (tube type) - Colour (solid state) - B&W (tube type) - B&W (solid state)	350 200 1.60 .55	0.018 0.10 ** **	180 hours, (6 hours per day) 180 hours 180 hours 180 hours	$3.15 1.80 0.50 1.44
Video*	27.5	**	30 hours	0.04
Hi-Fi/Stereo	110	**	10 hours	0.06
Personal Computer (includes monitor)	150	**	60 hours (2 hours per day)	0.45
Radio	50	**	60 hours	0.15
Radio/Record player	110	**	10 hours	0.06
Slide projector	150	**	2 hours	0.02
Movie projector	150	**	2 hours	0.02
Electric train	15	**	10 hours	**
Electric fireplace	1500	0.075	10 hours	0.75
Power tools - 1/4'' Electric drill - Circular saw - Jig saw - Table saw - Chain saw - Sander	287 1150 287 1380 1380 287	0.014 0.057 0.014 0.069 0.069 0.014	2 hours 2 hours 2 hours 2 hours 2 hours 2 hours	0.03 0.11 0.03 0.14 0.14 0.03

* Plus Operation of Television.

** Less than a penny.

Kitchen Appliances

Kitchen Appliances	Average Wattage	Single Use Cost and Time of Use	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated Monthly Usage Cost (5¢ per KWH)
Dishwasher***	1200	$0.06 for 1 hr. drying unit on 0.028 for 1 load drying unit off	Once a day Once a day	$ 1.80 $ 0.84
Range (Electric)
- Full Time Cooking*	7-12kw	0.05 for 1 hr.	Three times daily	4.50
- Small Surface Element*	1,300	0.032 for 1 hr. medium setting	Three times daily	2.93
- Large Surface Element*	2,400	0.06 for 1 hr. medium setting	Three times daily	5.40
- Oven - (non-self-cleaning)*	3,200	0.05 for 1 hr.	20 hours	1.00
- Oven (self-cleaning)*	3,200	.040	20 hours	0.80
- Broiler Unit	3,600	0.045 for 15 min.	One hour	0.18
- Self-Cleaning Feature*	4,000	0.25 for 2 hrs.	One time	0.25
Microwave Oven	700	** for 5 min.	12 hours	0.42
Roaster*	1,320	0.033 for 1 hr.	Three hours	0.10
Trash Compactor	400	**	30 minutes	0.01
Baby Food Warmer	165	** for 5 min.	Three hours	0.03
Blender	400	** for 1 min.	30 minutes	0.01
Broiler (portable)*	1,500	0.02 for 30 min.	Once a week	0.08
Can Opener	288	** for 15 sec.	100 times	0.01
Carving Knife	100	** for 5 min.	30 minutes	**
Clock	2	**	24 hrs/day	0.07
Coffee Maker (automatic percolator)	850	0.04 for 1 hr.	Once a day	1.20
Coffee Maker (automatic drip)	1,500	0.07 for 1 hr.	Once a day	2.10
Egg Cooker	520	** for 5 min.	Once a day	0.21
Corn Popper	575	** for 15 min.	Once a week	0.03
Deep Fat Fryer	1,500	0.018 for 15 min.	Once a week	0.07
Disposer	500	** for 1 min.	One hour	0.03
Fondue/Chafing Dish*	800	0.02 for 1 hr.	Once a week	0.08
Food Dehydrator*	875	0.16 for 10 hrs.	Once a week	0.64
Fry Pan*	1,100.	0.028 for 1 hr.	Once a week	0.12
Grinder (food or coffee)	150	** for 1 min	Once a day	**
Griddle*	1,200	0.015 for 30 min.	Three hours	0.09
Hot Plate*	1,250	0.015 for 30 min.	Three hours	0.09
Ice Crusher	300	** for 5 min.	30 times	0.03
Juicer	90	** for 3 min	Once a day	**
Knife Sharpener	100	** for 3 min	One hour	**
Hand Mixer	125	** for 30 min	Two hours	0.01
Standing Mixer	150	** for 30 min	Three hours	0.02
Sandwich Grill	1,150	0.028 for 30 min.	Three hours	0.17
Toaster	1,150	** for 2 min.	Twice a day	0.12
Waffle Iron*	1,100	0.014 for 30 min.	Two hours	0.06
Warming Tray	140	** for 1 hr.	Three hours	0.02
Slow Cooker-Low	75	0.03 for 8 hrs.	32 hours	0.12
Slow Cooker-High	150	0.06 for 8 hrs.	32 hours.	0.24
Outdoor Grill	1,500	0.075 for 1 hour	Four hours.	0.30
Wok Pan	1,000	0.025 for 30 min.	Three hours	0.15
Meat Slicer	200	** for 10 min.	30 min.	0.01
Toaster Oven*	1,500	0.019 for 30 min.	8 hours	0.30
Burger Grill	510	** for 3 min.	One hour	0.03
Plastic Bag Sealer	58	** for 5 min	30 min.	**
Pressure Cooker	1,300	0.065 for 1 hr.	Six hours.	0.39
Hot Dog Cooker	1,500	** for 3 min	One hour	0.08
Crepe Maker	1,000	0.025 for 30 min.	Two hours	0.10

*Thermostatically controlled. Costs based on estimated appliance 'on time'.

** Less than a penny.

*** Operating costs do not include water heating.

Lighting

Lighting	Wattage	Light Output (Lumens)	Life (Hours)	Single Use Cost and Time of Use	Estimated Monthly Usage Cost (30 days) (5¢ per KWH)
Incandescent	100 75 60 40	1520 1170 780 470	1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000	0.04 for 8 hrs. 0.03 for 8 hrs. 0.024 for 8 hrs. 0.016 for 8 hrs.	1.20 0.90 0.72 0.48
Compact Fluorescent (including ballast)	18W (25) 13W (17) 9W (12) 7W (11)	1,200 900 600 400	10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000	0.01 for 8 hrs. ** for 8 hrs. ** for 8 hrs. ** for 8 hrs.	0.30 0.20 0.14 0.13
Single Fluorescent (+Standard ballast) (+Energy-efficient ballast) (+Electronic ballast)	40W (54) 34W (49) 40W (47) 34W (41) 40W (41) 34W (36)	3,150 2,800 3,150 2,800 3,150 2,800	20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000	0.022 for 8 hrs. 0.019 for 8 hrs. 0.016 for 8 hrs. 0.016 for 8 hrs. 0.016 for 8 hrs. 0.014 for 8 hrs.	0.81 0.73 0.69 0.60 0.60 0.54
Double Fluorescent (+Standard ballast) (+Energy-efficient ballast) (+Electronic ballast)	80W (95) 68W (81) 80W (86) 68W (74) 80W (74) 68W (62)	6,300 5,600 6,300 5,600 6,300 5,600	20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000	0.038 for 8 hrs. 0.033 for 8 hrs. 0.034 for 8 hrs. 0.030 for 8 hrs. 0.030 for 8 hrs. 0.025 for 8 hrs.	1.14 0.99 1.02 0.90 0.90 0.75

Figures for single and double fluorescent lighting are for standard T12 - 48 inch lamps.

** Less than one penny

Outside Electrical

Outside Electrical	Average Wattage	Single Use Cost and Period of Use	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated Monthly Usage Costs (5¢ per KWH)
Post light (incandescent)	100	**	300 hours	$1.50
Post light (mercury)*	90	**	300 hours	1.35
Post light (sodium vapour)*	70	**	300 hours	1.05
Yard light (flood or spot)	100	**	300 hours	1.50
Christmas lights 45 bulbs (3 strings) 15 watt	675	$0.034	42 hours	1.42
Snow melting cable - 100' Gutter - 4' x 70' Sidewalk - 10' x 50' Driveway	700 11200 20000	0.035 0.560 1.00	Ten hours Ten hours Ten hours	0.35 5.60 10.00
Snow blower	1200	0.060	Ten hours	0.60
Septic tank aerator	300	0.015	30 hours	0.45
Garage door opener	350	0.017	3 open and closes per day	0.05
Garden tools - Edger - Hedge trimmer - Lawn mower	480 288 1200	0.024 0.014 0.060	Two hours Two hours Two hours	0.05 0.03 0.24
Outdoor grill	1500	0.075	Four hours	0.30
Illuminated house number	15	**	Ten hours	0.01
Porch or wall light	75	**	Ten hours	0.04
Bug light	100	**	Ten hours	0.05
Stock tank heater	1000	0.050	720 hours	36.00
Brooder	750	0.037	720 hours	27.00

* Includes ballast wattage.

** Less than a penny.

Refrigerators and Freezers

Refrigerator/Freezer*	Estimated KWH Per Month	Estimated Monthly Usage Cost (5¢ per KWH)
STANDARD INSULATION LEVELS
Top Freezer Models - Automatic Defrost14 - 16 cu. ft. 17 - 18 cu. ft. 19 - 21 cu. ft.	142 151 144	$7.10 7.55 7.20
Side-By-Side Models - Automatic Defrost 17 - 18 cu. ft. 19 - 20 cu. ft. 21 - 22 cu. ft. 23 - 24 cu. ft.	142 154 167 182	7.10 8.35 9.10 7.28
Top Freezer Models - Manual Defrost 12 cu. ft. 13 cu. ft. 14 cu. ft. 15 cu. ft.	83 98 93 71	4.15 4.90 4.65 3.55
HIGH EFFICIENCY or HIGHER INSULATED MODELS
Top Freezer Models - Automatic Defrost 14 - 16 cu. ft. 17 - 18 cu. ft. 20 - 22 cu. ft. Top Freezer Models - Manual Defrost 15 - 17 cu. ft.	110 118 117 80	5.50 5.90 5.85 4.00
Freezers*	Estimated KWH Per Month	Estimated Monthly Usage Cost (5¢ per KWH)
Chest Freezers - Manual Defrost 15 cu. ft. 20 cu. ft. 23 cu. ft. 25 cu. ft.	87 104 122 118	4.35 5.20 6.10 5.90
Upright Freezers - Manual Defrost 15 - 16 cu. ft. 18 - 21 cu. ft.	97 100	4.85 5.00
Upright Freezers - Automatic Defrost 15 - 16 cu. ft. 18 - 21 cu. ft.	157 163	7.85 8.15

* Energy usage estimated are based on the average between high and low energy use from studies, currently available. Per month energy usage may vary from the averaged figures provided depending on age, condition and the location of your fridge or freezer. Energy usage per month for some of the larger models shows a decrease because larger models are usually better insulated than smaller models. Models with accessories such as ice makers and water dispensers will have higher energy usage.

Thermostatically Controlled Water Heater

Usage	Gallons of Hot Water	Single Usage Operating Cost (5¢ per KWH)	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated MonthlyUsage Cost (30 days) (5¢ per KWH)
Tub bath	10 - 15	12¢ - 20¢	30 baths	$3.60 - 6.00
Shower	8 - 12	10¢ - 15¢	30 showers	3.00 - 4.50
Baby bath	5	6¢	30 baby baths	1.80
Meal Preparation	3	3¢	60 meals	1.80
Dishwashing - hand	5	6¢	90 times	5.40
Dishwashing - automatic	10 - 15*	12¢ - 20¢	30 loads	3.60 - 6.00
Clothes washing - automatic	18	23¢	30 loads	6.90

* Pre-rinsing with hot water will increase the hot water usage.

Utility and Laundry Appliances

Utility-Laundry	Average Wattage	Single Use Cost and Time of Use	Estimated Monthly Usage	Estimated Monthly Usage Costs (5¢ per KWH)
Clock	2	$***	Continuous	$0.08
Floor waxer/cleaner	350	0.017 for 1 hr	Three hours	0.05
Incinerator	605	0.060 for 2 hrs	240 hours	7.20
100 watt bulb	100	*** for 1 hr	Ten hours	0.05
Sewing Machine	100	*** for 1 hr	Five hours	0.03
Sump pump	85	*** for 1 hr	Four hours	0.02
Vacuum cleaner	650	0.016 for 30 min	Two hours	0.06
Water pump	1080	0.054 for 1 hr	Two hours	0.11
Electric clothes dryer* - Regular fabric* - Permanent press*	4800	0.19 for 1 load 0.15 for 1 load	15 loads 25 loads	2.85 1.50
Gas clothes dryer**	210	0.01 for 1 load	25 loads	0.25
Radiant picture heater	400	0.02 for 1 hr	720 hours	14.40
Space heater	1300	0.065 for 1 hr	60 hours	3.90
Washer - Automatic - Wringer type	500 280	0.012 for 1 load ** for 1 load	30 loads 30 loads	0.36 0.21
Iron (hand)*	1000	0.025 for 1 hr	Five hours	0.13
Iron (mangle)*	1525	0.038 for 1 hr	Five hours	0.19

* Thermostatically controlled. The average cost is based on the estimated appliance 'on time'.

** Electric motor only; gas cost extra.

*** Less than a penny.

Water Beds

Room Temperature	Water Bed Temperature
	80° F		85° F		90° F
	KWH/Mo.	Cost/Mo.*	KWH/Mo.	Cost/Mo.*	KWH/Mo.	Cost/Mo.*
80° F	0	$ 0.00	34	$ 1.70	68	$ 3.40
75° F	34	1.70	68	3.40	101	5.05
70° F	68	3.40	101	5.05	135	6.75
65° F	101	5.05	135	6.75	169	8.45
60° F	135	6.75	169	8.45	203	10.15
55° F	169	8.45	203	10.15	236	11.80
50° F	203	10.15	236	11.80	271	13.55

* Based on an estimated average cost of 5¢ per KWH.

Note: Your energy consumption will be less during warm months. If your waterbed is not well covered with bedding, the energy usage (operating cost) could be up to 40% more. Extra insulation, such as foam insulation around the frame or heavy bedding, can help lower these costs.

While it is often said that energy conservation starts at home, it can be difficult to decide where to start. The homeowners guide to energy savings is designed to help you get started with over 100 energy saving tips for the entire home. Many of the ideas are inexpensive and easy to do. Some cost nothing at all.

One of your first steps for conserving energy is to ensure that the correct levels of insulation have been installed in your homes walls, ceilings and basement. Check with your local building authorities for recommended levels for your area. If your insulation levels are too low you should look at upgrading them as soon as possible. Proper insulation not only saves on heating costs but makes for a more comfortable home and helps reduce summer time cooling costs.

APPLIANCES

Clothes Dryers

1. Keep the lint filter clean. A dirt lint filter restricts air flow.
   
2. Operate the dryer with a full load whenever possible.
   
3. Check the dryer vent twice yearly to make sure it isn't plugged or restricted.
   
4. Match the dryer temperature settings to the type of fabric and the size of load.

Clothes Washers

1. Wash full loads or use lower water level settings for smaller loads.
   
2. Use hot water only when necessary. Modern detergents work well in warm and cold water.
   
3. Use a cold water rinse cycle.
   
4. Do not over wash clothes. Delicate clothes don't need as long a wash cycle as dirty work clothes.

Dishwashers

1. When possible wash full loads only.
   
2. Use the shortest wash cycle possible.
   
3. Use the 'energy saver' cycle if available. If your dishwasher doesn't have this function open the door at the end of the rinse cycle and let the dishes air dry.

Other Appliances

1. Using an electric frying pan rather than a range element uses half the energy.
   
2. Electric kettles are quicker and use less energy than boiling water on the stove.
   
3. A slow cooker uses one third the energy to cook a stew that an oven does.
   
4. A toaster is three times as efficient as the range oven in making toast.
   
5. Pressure cookers cook five to ten times as fast as an oven.

Microwaves

1. Using microwaves for cooking vegetables or warming foods is very energy efficient, while using it to defrost frozen foods is an energy waster.

Refrigerators

1. Unplug fridge and clean the dust from the back or bottom coils twice a year.
   
2. Make sure there is at least a 8 mm (3 inch) air space between the back of the fridge and the wall to allow for air circulation.
   
3. Turn off your automatic ice maker. It is far more efficient to make ice in ice cube trays.
   
4. Locate the fridge away from any heat producing sources, warm air flows, or sunlight.
   
5. Cool foods before putting them in the fridge and cover all liquids to stop evaporation.
   
6. Keep the fridge door gasket clean and check the seal yearly for tightness. If seals are worn replace.
   
7. Defrost fridge and freezer regularly.
   
8. Adjust the fridge temperature setting to between 2° and 4° (36° to 38°).
   
9. Adjust the fridge/freezer temperature to -15° to - 18° (4° to 0°)
   
10. Do not put a fridge or freezer in cold areas such as a porch or garage because they do not operate as efficiently.
    
11. Thawing frozen foods in the fridge reduces spoilage and helps cool the fridge.
    
12. Avoid keeping the fridge door open any longer than necessary.
    
13. When buying a new fridge or freezer compare energy usage information.
    
14. Turn off the butter conditioner, its actually a little heater inside your fridge.

Ranges (Stoves)

1. Match pots and pans to stove element size for best heat transfer.
   
2. If you use a minimum amount of water in covered pans, foods cook faster and taste fresher.
   
3. Use reflector pans (foil) under electric stove elements to reflect heat and increase efficiency.
   
4. Use lids on pots whenever possible.
   
5. Ovens can be turned off 15 to 20 minutes before cooking time is complete and food will continue to cook without using more electricity.
   
6. Preheat oven only when required. Most foods can be cooked without preheating.
   
7. Defrost food beforehand, it takes 50% more cooking time if frozen.
   
8. Check that the stove door gasket is tight. Adjust or replace as required.
   
9. Don't peek by opening the oven door. Sneak previews are energy wasters.
   
10. If possible use a pressure cooker, they greatly reduce cooking time.
    
11. Small appliances like toasters, broilers, microwaves and kettles are more efficient for small jobs than a stove.
    
12. Use the self-cleaning feature right after regular cooking. Less energy will be required to reach cleaning temperature as the stove is already warm.
    
13. When using the oven cook several items at a time.
    
14. If buying a new range consider a self-cleaning oven. Self-cleaning ovens use less energy for normal cooking because of higher insulation levels.
    
15. Use your microwave for cooking whenever possible.

Block Heaters

1. Put a timer on the circuit for your car block heater. To be effective it only needs to be on two to three hours before the car is started.
   
2. Plug your in-car heater into the same timer as your block heater.

DOMESTIC HOT WATER HEATING

1. Set the thermostat on your water heater to 49° (120°). If your dishwasher has a booster this is fine, if not set the thermostat at 60° (140°).
   
2. Upgrade your hot water tanks insulation levels with an insulation kit or glass fibre insulation wrap.
   
3. In cool basements or unheated areas make sure hot water lines are insulated.
   
4. Drain about 4.5 litres (1 gallon) every two to three months from the drain tap to remove sediment and mineral build-up from the bottom of the tank.
   
5. If a gas or oil fired unit is used have it serviced at least once a year.
   
6. Repair any leaking faucets.
   
7. Install low flow shower-heads and faucet aerators to reduce hot water usage.
   
8. Showers normally use less hot water than baths.
   
9. Let bath water stand in the tub until it has cooled and released its heat into the house.
   
10. Turn your water heater off when you go on vacation.
    
11. Install a heat trap loop or anti-convection valve on your hot and cold water lines at the water heater.
    
12. If replacing a water heater buy an energy efficient unit or consider alternatives such as a heat-pump or integrated water/space heating units.

HOME DRAFTPROOFING

1. Locate and seal any air leaks in the 'building envelope' (walls, ceilings, floors and basements).
   
2. Check the weatherstripping on all windows and doors. Replace if worn or damaged.
   
3. Caulk the inside of all window and door frames.
   
4. Remove exterior wall baseboards, caulk and replace.
   
5. Caulk from the inside and outside, any penetrations (electrical, plumbing, vents, etc.) through the building envelope.
   
6. Install interior or exterior storm windows.
   
7. Install foam draft enders on all wall electrical outlets.
   
8. Seal around ceiling fixtures and caulk where the wires enter.
   
9. Check your dryer and exhaust vent hoods. If the flappers do not close properly, repair or replace.
   
10. Seal around plumbing stacks and the chimney (Use a high temperature sealant for the chimney).
    
11. Weatherstrip and insulate interior attic access doors.

LIGHTING

1. Open the drapes and use natural daylight where possible.
   
2. Turn off all lights when not in use (make one of your children the family light cop).
   
3. Where possible replace incandescent lights with fluorescent lights. Fluorescent lights produce four times as much light per watt, last ten times as long and cost one third as much to operate.
   
4. Use task lighting wherever possible.
   
5. Keep light fixtures and bulbs clean to maintain efficiency.
   
6. Use the right type and size of light bulb for each lighting job. A 150 watt bulb is more efficient and produces more light than two 75 watt bulbs.
   
7. Install solid state dimmers in areas where full lighting is not always required.
   
8. If decorating use light colored walls which reflect more light.
   
9. Use motion sensors on outside lights.
   
10. Use occupancy sensors in workrooms or laundry rooms.
    
11. Reduce lighting wattage to the minimum required.
    
12. Where possible consider Halogen bulbs which use half the energy of an incandescent light and last two to four times as long.
    
13. Consider high pressure sodium (HPS) lamps for exterior lighting. HPS lamps use seventy per cent less energy than a standard floodlight and last up to eight times as long.
    
14. Consider a timer to turn lights on and off while you are out for an evening or on vacation.
    
15. Use low wattage Christmas or decorative lighting.

SPACE HEATING

General

1. Reduce your daytime thermostat setting to 20° (68°)
   
2. Reduce your nighttime thermostat setting to 17° (63°). Use the nighttime settings if no one is home during the day.
   
3. Make sure the thermostat is located away from any heat producing sources.
   
4. Buy and install an automatic setback thermostat.
   
5. Close off and reduce the temperature to 10° (50°) in unused rooms.
   
6. Reduce nighttime heat loss by closing drapes or insulated shutters.
   
7. Open drapes on south windows during the day to gain free solar heat.
   
8. Keep exhaust fans in good operating condition and minimize use during the heating season.
   
9. Be sure that fireplace and woodstove dampers seal properly and are tightly closed when not in use.

Forced Air - Gas *(Always turn off the power before making any adjustments)

1. Keep the furnace filter clean. A dirty filter reduces air flow and makes the fan work harder.
   
2. Keep all air registers clean and free of obstructions.
   
3. If required oil the motor and fan axle ports twice yearly.
   
4. If the fan is belt driven adjust the belt tension so that when depressed in the middle there is only 20 to 30 mm (3/4 to 1 1/4 inches) of slack.
   
5. Have your furnace serviced yearly.
   
6. Check the accuracy of your thermostat annually.
   
7. Insulate hot air ducts which pass through unheated spaces and seal all ductwork seams with duct tape.
   
8. If practical use plastic warm air deflectors to direct warm air into the room.
   
9. Open combustion air ducts should be fitted with a thermostat controlled, fail-safe electric damper.

Forced Air - Oil

1. Check the flame through the peep hole while the furnace is running. If black smoke is visible on the tip of the flame call in a serviceman for adjustment.
   
2. When the furnace is not operating use a flashlight to check the fire box for soot buildup. If there is a soot buildup arrange for an adjustment and servicing.
   
3. Clean and oil the hinges on the barometric damper and be sure it swings freely.
   
4. Change your oil filter annually.
   
5. Have the unit properly serviced prior to the start of each heating season.

Hot-Water Space Heating

1. Check fluid levels in the boiler regularly.
   
2. Check expansion tank and insure that there is an air space to allow for expansion.
   
3. Bleed the air from all radiators and check periodically.
   
4. Insulate any hot water pipes running through unheated areas.
   
5. Keep radiators clean and free from any obstructions.

Electric Space Heating

1. Clean heating elements regularly.
   
2. Check that the deflectors are open and aiming the heat into the room.
   
3. Insure that radiators are not blocked by furniture or drapes.
   
4. Check each zone thermostat yearly for accuracy.